Lesson 17: Integration of Rational Functions restart;

We were looking at how to integrate a rational function. After an initial division step, which produces a polynomial part of the integral, we were left with a rational function LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUkmbWZyYWNHRiQ2KC1JI21pR0YkNiVRInBGJy8lJ2l0YWxpY0dRJXRydWVGJy8lLG1hdGh2YXJpYW50R1EnaXRhbGljRictRiM2JS1GLzYlUSJxRidGMkY1RjJGNS8lLmxpbmV0aGlja25lc3NHUSIxRicvJStkZW5vbWFsaWduR1EnY2VudGVyRicvJSludW1hbGlnbkdGQi8lKWJldmVsbGVkR1EmZmFsc2VGJy9GNlEnbm9ybWFsRic= where the degree of LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEicEYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy9GM1Enbm9ybWFsRic= is less than the degree of LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEicUYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy9GM1Enbm9ybWFsRic= (this is not the original LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEicEYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy9GM1Enbm9ybWFsRic=, but I'll call it LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEicEYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy9GM1Enbm9ybWFsRic= now). In our example: p := 13*x^3 + 16*x^2 + 5*x+ 1: q := x^4 - 6*x^2 - 8*x - 3: f := p/q; We factored the denominator q. factor(q); Now 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 supposed to be decomposed into partial fractions: a sum of the following form: parfrac:= p/q = a/(x-3)+ b/(x+1) + c/(x+1)^2 + d/(x+1)^3; We need to solve for the constants a, b, c, d that make this equation true. If we clear away the denominators, we get an equation for polynomials: normal(parfrac*q); The coefficient of each power of x on the left must match the coefficient of each power of x on the right. eqns := {seq(coeff(rhs(%),x,n) = coeff(lhs(%),x,n),n=0..3)}; These are four linear equations in the four unknown coefficients a,b,c,d, which Maple can solve: solve(eqns); Plug these back in to the partial fraction form. eval(rhs(parfrac),%); Of course, we know how to integrate each of those terms. The result (added to the integral of the polynomial part) is our antiderivative. F = int(%, x); The main problem in general with this approach is that we might not be able to factor the denominator. Let's see some examples where the denominator doesn't factor quite so nicely. Sometimes there's no way around it: you just have to write an answer involving RootOf's. int(p/((x^3 + x + 1)*(x^2+1)^2),x); int(p/(x^6 - 4*x^4 + 3*x^3 + 22*x^2 - 28),x); int(p/(x^3 + x + 1)^2, x); But sometimes it turns out you can avoid solving nasty polynomials.

What Maple does next after the division step is called the Hurwitz-Ostrogradsky method, which produces any rational part of the integral. I'll use the same numerator p in our example. q:=expand((x^2+1)*(x^2+x+1)^2); J:= Int(p/q, x); value(J); We need the following useful fact: Any two polynomials 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 and LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYoLUkjbWlHRiQ2I1EhRictRiM2KC1GLDYnUSJiRicvJSVib2xkR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUnaXRhbGljR0Y2LyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSxib2xkLWl0YWxpY0YnLyUrZm9udHdlaWdodEdRJWJvbGRGJy1JI21vR0YkNi1RMCZBcHBseUZ1bmN0aW9uO0YnL0Y6USdub3JtYWxGJy8lJmZlbmNlR1EmZmFsc2VGJy8lKnNlcGFyYXRvckdGRy8lKXN0cmV0Y2h5R0ZHLyUqc3ltbWV0cmljR0ZHLyUobGFyZ2VvcEdGRy8lLm1vdmFibGVsaW1pdHNHRkcvJSdhY2NlbnRHRkcvJSdsc3BhY2VHUSYwLjBlbUYnLyUncnNwYWNlR0ZWLUkobWZlbmNlZEdGJDYmLUYjNiYtRiw2J1EieEYnRjRGN0Y5RjxGNC9GOkY+RjxGNEZbb0Y8RjRGW29GPEYrRjRGW29GPA== have a greatest common divisor 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: this divides both 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 and 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, and every polynomial that does that also divides 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. "Greatest" here is in the sense of "highest degree". You could get the greatest common divisor by looking at the common factors of LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYmLUkjbWlHRiQ2I1EhRictRiM2Ji1GLDYlUSJhRicvJSdpdGFsaWNHUSV0cnVlRicvJSxtYXRodmFyaWFudEdRJ2l0YWxpY0YnLUkjbW9HRiQ2LVEwJkFwcGx5RnVuY3Rpb247RicvRjhRJ25vcm1hbEYnLyUmZmVuY2VHUSZmYWxzZUYnLyUqc2VwYXJhdG9yR0ZCLyUpc3RyZXRjaHlHRkIvJSpzeW1tZXRyaWNHRkIvJShsYXJnZW9wR0ZCLyUubW92YWJsZWxpbWl0c0dGQi8lJ2FjY2VudEdGQi8lJ2xzcGFjZUdRJjAuMGVtRicvJSdyc3BhY2VHRlEtSShtZmVuY2VkR0YkNiQtRiM2JC1GLDYlUSJ4RidGNEY3Rj5GPkY+RitGPg== and LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYmLUkjbWlHRiQ2I1EhRictRiM2Ji1GLDYlUSJiRicvJSdpdGFsaWNHUSV0cnVlRicvJSxtYXRodmFyaWFudEdRJ2l0YWxpY0YnLUkjbW9HRiQ2LVEwJkFwcGx5RnVuY3Rpb247RicvRjhRJ25vcm1hbEYnLyUmZmVuY2VHUSZmYWxzZUYnLyUqc2VwYXJhdG9yR0ZCLyUpc3RyZXRjaHlHRkIvJSpzeW1tZXRyaWNHRkIvJShsYXJnZW9wR0ZCLyUubW92YWJsZWxpbWl0c0dGQi8lJ2FjY2VudEdGQi8lJ2xzcGFjZUdRJjAuMGVtRicvJSdyc3BhY2VHRlEtSShtZmVuY2VkR0YkNiQtRiM2JC1GLDYlUSJ4RidGNEY3Rj5GPkY+RitGPg==, but there's an efficient way of doing it without factoring. The command is called gcd. gcd(q, (3*x+2)*(x^2+1)); Notice that any factor that occurs in LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEicUYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy9GM1Enbm9ybWFsRic= to a power > 1 also divides q', e.g. 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. So taking the gcd of q and q' will capture those factors, but nothing that occurs only to the power 1. r:= gcd(q, diff(q,x)); s:= normal(q/r^2); So now (with our assumption that there is no higher exponent than a square) we can say 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 where LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYmLUkjbWlHRiQ2I1EhRictRiM2JC1GLDYlUSJzRicvJSdpdGFsaWNHUSV0cnVlRicvJSxtYXRodmFyaWFudEdRJ2l0YWxpY0YnL0Y4USdub3JtYWxGJ0YrRjo= has no squared (or higher power) factors. We say s is squarefree. Now I'd like to write 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, where a and b are polynomials: a should have lower degree than r and b should have lower degree than LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYmLUkjbWlHRiQ2I1EhRictRiM2Ji1GLDYlUSJyRicvJSdpdGFsaWNHUSV0cnVlRicvJSxtYXRodmFyaWFudEdRJ2l0YWxpY0YnLUkjbW9HRiQ2LVExJkludmlzaWJsZVRpbWVzO0YnL0Y4USdub3JtYWxGJy8lJmZlbmNlR1EmZmFsc2VGJy8lKnNlcGFyYXRvckdGQi8lKXN0cmV0Y2h5R0ZCLyUqc3ltbWV0cmljR0ZCLyUobGFyZ2VvcEdGQi8lLm1vdmFibGVsaW1pdHNHRkIvJSdhY2NlbnRHRkIvJSdsc3BhY2VHUSYwLjBlbUYnLyUncnNwYWNlR0ZRLUYsNiVRInNGJ0Y0RjdGPkYrRj4=. Expand this out with the Quotient Rule: 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 Multiply by LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYlLUklbXN1cEdGJDYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEickYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1GIzYkLUkjbW5HRiQ2JFEiMkYnL0Y2USdub3JtYWxGJ0Y+LyUxc3VwZXJzY3JpcHRzaGlmdEdRIjBGJy1GLzYlUSJzRidGMkY1Rj4=: 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 In our example, a should have degree at most 1 and b should have degree at most 3, so take 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 and 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. A:= a[0] + a[1]*x; B:= b[0] + b[1]*x + b[2]*x^2 + b[3]*x^3; p = r * diff(A,x) * s - A*diff(r,x)*s + B*r; Expand this out, look at coefficients of equal powers of x, and you have six equations in six unknowns. expand(%); eqns:= {seq(coeff(lhs(%),x,n)=coeff(rhs(%),x,n),n=0..5)}; S:=solve(eqns); So the rational part of the antiderivative is rationalpart:= eval(A/r,S); and the part we still have to integrate is todo:= eval(B/(r*s),S); I'll call the numerator and denominator here p and q again. p := numer(todo); q := denom(todo); where there are no more repeated roots.

The next point: suppose 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 where LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUklbXN1YkdGJDYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEickYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1GIzYkLUYvNiVRImpGJ0YyRjUvRjZRJ25vcm1hbEYnLyUvc3Vic2NyaXB0c2hpZnRHUSIwRidGPQ== are the roots of LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEicUYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy9GM1Enbm9ybWFsRic= (and there are no repeated roots). Then 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. How does this work? 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 The trouble is, I don't want to actually calculate the roots LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYmLUkjbWlHRiQ2I1EhRictRiM2JC1JJW1zdWJHRiQ2JS1GLDYlUSJyRicvJSdpdGFsaWNHUSV0cnVlRicvJSxtYXRodmFyaWFudEdRJ2l0YWxpY0YnLUYjNiQtRiw2JVEiakYnRjdGOi9GO1Enbm9ybWFsRicvJS9zdWJzY3JpcHRzaGlmdEdRIjBGJ0ZCRitGQg== if I can avoid it. Fortunately, I can avoid it. Well, LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEicUYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy9GM1Enbm9ybWFsRic= and 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 have a common root LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUklbXN1YkdGJDYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEickYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1GIzYkLUYvNiVRImpGJ0YyRjUvRjZRJ25vcm1hbEYnLyUvc3Vic2NyaXB0c2hpZnRHUSIwRidGPQ==. Now we have a way of finding when polynomials have a common root, namely the resultant. R:= resultant(q, p - z*diff(q,x), x); This should be 0 when 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 for at least one of the roots LUklbXN1Ykc2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEickYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1JJW1yb3dHRiQ2JC1GLDYlUSJqRidGL0YyL0YzUSdub3JtYWxGJy8lL3N1YnNjcmlwdHNoaWZ0R1EiMEYn of q. A := {solve(R)}; That is the list of all the different coefficients LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYmLUkjbWlHRiQ2I1EhRictRiM2JC1JJW1zdWJHRiQ2JS1GLDYlUSJhRicvJSdpdGFsaWNHUSV0cnVlRicvJSxtYXRodmFyaWFudEdRJ2l0YWxpY0YnLUYjNiQtRiw2JVEiakYnRjdGOi9GO1Enbm9ybWFsRicvJS9zdWJzY3JpcHRzaGlmdEdRIjBGJ0ZCRitGQg== that we could have. Each might belong to more than one root LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYmLUkjbWlHRiQ2I1EhRictRiM2JC1JJW1zdWJHRiQ2JS1GLDYlUSJyRicvJSdpdGFsaWNHUSV0cnVlRicvJSxtYXRodmFyaWFudEdRJ2l0YWxpY0YnLUYjNiQtRiw2JVEiakYnRjdGOi9GO1Enbm9ybWFsRicvJS9zdWJzY3JpcHRzaGlmdEdRIjBGJ0ZCRitGQg==. Now LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUklbXN1YkdGJDYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEickYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1GIzYkLUYvNiVRImpGJ0YyRjUvRjZRJ25vcm1hbEYnLyUvc3Vic2NyaXB0c2hpZnRHUSIwRidGPQ== is a root of LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEicUYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy9GM1Enbm9ybWFsRic= and of LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYpLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEicEYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1JI21vR0YkNi1RKCZtaW51cztGJy9GM1Enbm9ybWFsRicvJSZmZW5jZUdRJmZhbHNlRicvJSpzZXBhcmF0b3JHRj0vJSlzdHJldGNoeUdGPS8lKnN5bW1ldHJpY0dGPS8lKGxhcmdlb3BHRj0vJS5tb3ZhYmxlbGltaXRzR0Y9LyUnYWNjZW50R0Y9LyUnbHNwYWNlR1EsMC4yMjIyMjIyZW1GJy8lJ3JzcGFjZUdGTC1JJW1zdWJHRiQ2JS1GLDYlUSJhRidGL0YyLUYjNiQtRiw2JVEiakYnRi9GMkY5LyUvc3Vic2NyaXB0c2hpZnRHUSIwRictRjY2LVExJkludmlzaWJsZVRpbWVzO0YnRjlGO0Y+RkBGQkZERkZGSC9GS1EmMC4wZW1GJy9GTkZbby1GLDYlUSJxRidGL0YyLUY2Ni1RIidGJ0Y5RjtGPkZARkJGREZGRkgvRktRLDAuMTExMTExMWVtRidGXG9GOQ==, so it's a root of 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. Nothing can be a root of LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUklbXN1YkdGJDYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEiR0YnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1GIzYkLUYvNiVRImpGJ0YyRjUvRjZRJ25vcm1hbEYnLyUvc3Vic2NyaXB0c2hpZnRHUSIwRidGPQ== that is not one of the LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUklbXN1YkdGJDYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEickYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1GIzYkLUYvNiVRImtGJ0YyRjUvRjZRJ25vcm1hbEYnLyUvc3Vic2NyaXB0c2hpZnRHUSIwRidGPQ== with the same coefficient. So (up to a constant factor) LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUklbXN1YkdGJDYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEiR0YnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1GIzYkLUYvNiVRImpGJ0YyRjUvRjZRJ25vcm1hbEYnLyUvc3Vic2NyaXB0c2hpZnRHUSIwRidGPQ== is the product of 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 for all those roots LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUklbXN1YkdGJDYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEickYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1GIzYkLUYvNiVRImtGJ0YyRjUvRjZRJ25vcm1hbEYnLyUvc3Vic2NyaXB0c2hpZnRHUSIwRidGPQ== that have coefficient LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUklbXN1YkdGJDYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEiYUYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1GIzYkLUYvNiVRImpGJ0YyRjUvRjZRJ25vcm1hbEYnLyUvc3Vic2NyaXB0c2hpZnRHUSIwRidGPQ==. The point here is that I can calculate LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYlLUklbXN1YkdGJDYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEiR0YnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1GIzYkLUYvNiVRImpGJ0YyRjUvRjZRJ25vcm1hbEYnLyUvc3Vic2NyaXB0c2hpZnRHUSIwRictSSNtb0dGJDYtUSJ+RidGPS8lJmZlbmNlR1EmZmFsc2VGJy8lKnNlcGFyYXRvckdGSC8lKXN0cmV0Y2h5R0ZILyUqc3ltbWV0cmljR0ZILyUobGFyZ2VvcEdGSC8lLm1vdmFibGVsaW1pdHNHRkgvJSdhY2NlbnRHRkgvJSdsc3BhY2VHUSYwLjBlbUYnLyUncnNwYWNlR0ZXRj0=without calculating the individual roots. for ii from 1 to 4 do G[ii]:= gcd(q, p - A[ii]*diff(q,x)) end do; Now LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYmLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEjbG5GJy8lJ2l0YWxpY0dRJmZhbHNlRicvJSxtYXRodmFyaWFudEdRJ25vcm1hbEYnLUkobWZlbmNlZEdGJDYkLUYjNiQtSSVtc3ViR0YkNiUtRiw2JVEiR0YnL0YwUSV0cnVlRicvRjNRJ2l0YWxpY0YnLUYjNiQtRiw2JVEiakYnRkBGQkYyLyUvc3Vic2NyaXB0c2hpZnRHUSIwRidGMkYyLUkjbW9HRiQ2LVEifkYnRjIvJSZmZW5jZUdGMS8lKnNlcGFyYXRvckdGMS8lKXN0cmV0Y2h5R0YxLyUqc3ltbWV0cmljR0YxLyUobGFyZ2VvcEdGMS8lLm1vdmFibGVsaW1pdHNHRjEvJSdhY2NlbnRHRjEvJSdsc3BhY2VHUSYwLjBlbUYnLyUncnNwYWNlR0ZqbkYyis a constant plus the sum of 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 for those roots LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUklbXN1YkdGJDYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEickYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1GIzYlLUYvNiVRImtGJ0YyRjVGMkY1LyUvc3Vic2NyaXB0c2hpZnRHUSIwRicvRjZRJ25vcm1hbEYn where the coefficient is LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUklbXN1YkdGJDYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEiYUYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1GIzYlLUYvNiVRImpGJ0YyRjVGMkY1LyUvc3Vic2NyaXB0c2hpZnRHUSIwRicvRjZRJ25vcm1hbEYn. The derivative of 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 is the sum of 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 for those roots. So the term for those roots in the antiderivative is 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. logterms := add(A[j]*ln(G[j]), j=1..4); To check that this works: diff(logterms,x) = todo; normal(lhs(%)-rhs(%)); The only other thing to mention is that these expressions in complex logarithms can be expressed in terms of real quantities. The evalc function tries to express a complex expression using real and imaginary parts. evalc(logterms) assuming x::real; int(todo,x); simplify(%-%%) assuming x::real; plot([Re(%),Im(%)],x=-10..10); To sum up, here's how Maple integrates a rational function QyQqJkkicEc2IiIiIkkicUdGJSEiIkYo Polynomial part: The polynomial part is the integral of the polynomial 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. Replace p by 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 and proceed to the next part. Rational part (in the case where the highest power of any factor is 2): Let 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, L0kic0c2IiomSSJxR0YkIiIiSSJyR0YkISIj Find polynomials a with lower degree than r and b with lower degree than LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYmLUkjbWlHRiQ2I1EhRictRiM2Ji1GLDYlUSJyRicvJSdpdGFsaWNHUSV0cnVlRicvJSxtYXRodmFyaWFudEdRJ2l0YWxpY0YnLUkjbW9HRiQ2LVExJkludmlzaWJsZVRpbWVzO0YnL0Y4USdub3JtYWxGJy8lJmZlbmNlR1EmZmFsc2VGJy8lKnNlcGFyYXRvckdGQi8lKXN0cmV0Y2h5R0ZCLyUqc3ltbWV0cmljR0ZCLyUobGFyZ2VvcEdGQi8lLm1vdmFibGVsaW1pdHNHRkIvJSdhY2NlbnRHRkIvJSdsc3BhY2VHUSYwLjBlbUYnLyUncnNwYWNlR0ZRLUYsNiVRInNGJ0Y0RjdGPkYrRj4= so that 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. The rational part is LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUkmbWZyYWNHRiQ2KC1JI21pR0YkNiVRImFGJy8lJ2l0YWxpY0dRJXRydWVGJy8lLG1hdGh2YXJpYW50R1EnaXRhbGljRictRi82JVEickYnRjJGNS8lLmxpbmV0aGlja25lc3NHUSIxRicvJStkZW5vbWFsaWduR1EnY2VudGVyRicvJSludW1hbGlnbkdGQC8lKWJldmVsbGVkR1EmZmFsc2VGJy9GNlEnbm9ybWFsRic=. Replace q by LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYmLUkjbWlHRiQ2I1EhRictRiM2Ji1GLDYlUSJyRicvJSdpdGFsaWNHUSV0cnVlRicvJSxtYXRodmFyaWFudEdRJ2l0YWxpY0YnLUkjbW9HRiQ2LVExJkludmlzaWJsZVRpbWVzO0YnL0Y4USdub3JtYWxGJy8lJmZlbmNlR1EmZmFsc2VGJy8lKnNlcGFyYXRvckdGQi8lKXN0cmV0Y2h5R0ZCLyUqc3ltbWV0cmljR0ZCLyUobGFyZ2VvcEdGQi8lLm1vdmFibGVsaW1pdHNHRkIvJSdhY2NlbnRHRkIvJSdsc3BhY2VHUSYwLjBlbUYnLyUncnNwYWNlR0ZRLUYsNiVRInNGJ0Y0RjdGPkYrRj4= and p by b and proceed to the next part. Logarithmic part: Let 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 (a polynomial in z). Let LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUklbXN1YkdGJDYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEiYUYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1JI21uR0YkNiRRIjFGJy9GNlEnbm9ybWFsRicvJS9zdWJzY3JpcHRzaGlmdEdRIjBGJ0Y8,..., LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYkLUklbXN1YkdGJDYlLUkjbWlHRiQ2JVEiYUYnLyUnaXRhbGljR1EldHJ1ZUYnLyUsbWF0aHZhcmlhbnRHUSdpdGFsaWNGJy1GLzYlUSJrRidGMkY1LyUvc3Vic2NyaXB0c2hpZnRHUSIwRicvRjZRJ25vcm1hbEYn be the roots of R. For each j from 1 to k let 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. The logarithmic part is 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

gcd JSFH

LUklbXJvd0c2Iy9JK21vZHVsZW5hbWVHNiJJLFR5cGVzZXR0aW5nR0koX3N5c2xpYkdGJzYjLUkjbWlHRiQ2I1EhRic=